Yokai and Their Enduring Presence in Folklore and Society
Influencing of Yokai on Spirituality and Cultural Identity
Yokai (妖怪) are supernatural beings widely recounted across Japan, but a key distinction between Western ghosts and Japanese yokai lies in their definition. In Western traditions, ghosts are typically the spirits of deceased humans, whereas Japan embraces a much broader interpretation. Yokai are not limited to human souls; rather, they include a vast array of supernatural entities, making them deeply connected to Japan’s animistic worldview rooted in Shinto polytheism. This perspective underscores why yokai cannot be discussed as a singular concept; their diversity reflects the spiritual pluralism that has defined Japan’s indigenous beliefs for centuries.
The academic study of yokai in Japan only began to take shape in the 1970s, with significant contributions from folklorists Noboru Miyata (1936–2000) and Kazuhiko Komatsu (1947–). Miyata’s work was particularly innovative because he moved beyond rural folklore, which had dominated the field due to the influence of Kunio Yanagita and Shinobu Orikuchi, and instead explored urban settings where new narratives of yokai continued to emerge. This expansion of perspective marked a major shift in yokai studies.
Miyata’s research culminated in his 1985 publication, Folklore of Yokai (妖怪の民俗学), where he conducted a detailed analysis of urban supernatural phenomena. In his later years, he introduced a groundbreaking idea: that urban anxieties fuel the imagination, leading to the creation of modern yokai.
His theory resonated strongly with my own childhood experiences. During that time, numerous urban legends about yokai-like beings were widely feared, such as Kuchisake-onna (the Slit-Mouthed Woman), a spectral figure rumored to attack people at night, and Hanako-san, a ghost said to haunt school bathrooms. These stories spread rapidly through word-of-mouth and media coverage, fueling our fears. I remember how they shaped our daily lives—many of my classmates, including myself, were so terrified that we avoided going to the bathroom alone at school. The sheer anxiety surrounding these legends made them feel almost real, as if these supernatural figures could appear at any moment.
Miyata’s work provided an academic framework for understanding such phenomena, demonstrating how folklore continues to evolve in response to contemporary fears. His legacy was further cemented with his posthumous work, Urban Space and the Supernatural (2001 / 都市空間の怪異), which remains an influential study in urban folklore.
While Miyata focused on contemporary urban legends, Kazuhiko Komatsu took a broader cultural and historical approach. He argued that yokai should not be confined to specific media genres like manga, anime, or literature, but rather understood as a transmedia phenomenon—one that has evolved throughout Japanese history and across different forms of cultural expression. His research laid the foundation for large-scale yokai studies conducted at the International Research Center for Japanese Studies, where he played a leading role.
Komatsu’s insights resonate with how yokai have been popularized in postwar Japan. The surge in yokai interest can largely be attributed to Shigeru Mizuki, whose GeGeGe no Kitaro helped solidify yokai’s place in contemporary culture. Later, the success of Hayao Miyazaki’s Princess Mononoke and the 2014 phenomenon of Yo-kai Watch further propelled yokai into mainstream consciousness. However, Komatsu also cautioned that modern media has, in some ways, limited yokai to certain entertainment genres, potentially reducing their broader cultural significance.
Considering these perspectives, it becomes clear that yokai are not just relics of rural folklore or figures confined to anime and manga. Rather, they are deeply ingrained in the Japanese psyche and everyday life, shaping cultural identity and spirituality. This concept sets yokai apart from supernatural beings in the West, where ghosts and monsters are often framed within a strict good-versus-evil dichotomy. In contrast, yokai in Japan exist within a fluid moral spectrum—they are not necessarily benevolent or malevolent but rather shape-shifters that reflect the fears and beliefs of different historical periods.
The deep-rooted fascination with yokai dates back over a thousand years to the Heian period (794–1185), when the aristocracy harbored an intense fear of supernatural forces known as mononoke (物怪）. Unlike the modern concept of yokai as distinct, physical creatures, mononoke were more abstract, referring to malevolent spiritual forces that caused illness, misfortune, and political downfall. This belief is evident in classical literature such as The Tale of Genji, The Great Mirror (Ōkagami), and The Konjaku Monogatari, where noble families sought spiritual protection against these unseen forces.
To combat such supernatural threats, the imperial court relied on onmyoji (陰陽師), the practitioners of onmyodo (陰陽道), a mystical discipline rooted in Chinese cosmology that evolved uniquely in Japan. These specialists conducted rituals and divinations to ward off spirits, influencing the emergence of yokai-related folklore that would continue to develop in later centuries.
As Japanese society evolved, so did its perception of yokai. By the Edo period (1603–1868), yokai had shifted from fearsome spirits to widely recognized cultural figures, depicted in ukiyo-e woodblock prints and kabuki theater. During the Meiji era (1868–1912), Japan’s rapid modernization brought about a rationalist approach to the supernatural, but rather than fading away, yokai adapted to new artistic and literary forms.
This transformation accelerated in the 20th and 21st centuries, where yokai found a new home in manga, anime, video games, and global pop culture. Unlike many supernatural entities that fade into obscurity over time, yokai have demonstrated remarkable adaptability, continuously evolving to match contemporary social concerns.
Given this history, yokai studies provide an unparalleled lens into the historical psyche of the Japanese people. Their evolution—from the ethereal mononoke of the Heian aristocracy to the beloved characters of modern-day entertainment—reveals the profound interconnection between folklore, spirituality, and cultural identity in Japan.
Ultimately, yokai are more than just mythical creatures; they are reflections of the collective fears, beliefs, and imaginations of generations of Japanese people. By tracing their history, we gain a deeper understanding of how supernatural traditions continue to shape Japan’s cultural landscape today.