The Philosophy of Kami

Foundational Insights for Decoding Amaterasu

The Japanese concept of “Kami (神)” has suffered a profound loss of its essence ever since it was translated as “God” in the modern era, creating significant misunderstandings. Today, even in Japan, very few individuals deeply comprehend the true meaning of Kami, leading to widespread confusion. Therefore, I will attempt to present my understanding of this concept clearly and fundamentally for the benefit of readers.

First and foremost, it is crucial to recognize that Japanese concepts inherently never hold a singular, fixed meaning; instead, they are always pluralistic. This significantly differs from Western thinking, which tends toward definitively determining the identity of objects. As I’ve mentioned multiple times, the Japanese language, being a predicative-realm language that does not structurally possess a subject or copula, has a fundamentally different cognitive framework compared to modern English. Thus, Kami is essentially an untranslatable Japanese concept; it is impossible to fully decode or explain it in any language other than Japanese. Nevertheless, I will explain it within a minimum feasible range.

It remains unclear exactly when the concept of Kami first emerged in Japan, but the earliest extant text, the Kojiki (712 CE), already employs the word Kami. Given that ancient Japanese culture lacked a written tradition and considering my multidimensional analysis of “Kotodama” (言霊, spirit of words) and “Otodama” (音霊, spirit of sounds), I regard the Japanese as fundamentally a culture of sound. Consequently, overly fixating on the current kanji character for Kami (神) obscures the ancient reality originally expressed simply as the sound “Kami.” Historically, numerous interpretations regarding the meaning of Kami have emerged, none of which can be deemed definitively correct. Indeed, attempting to reduce its meaning to a singular interpretation is inherently meaningless. This complexity makes it particularly challenging to understand.

For example, numerous scholarly considerations of Kami present it as an extremely polysemous concept encompassing everything from natural phenomena, spirits, ancestral souls, human spirits, to transcendent principles. Elements like the sun, moon, lightning, and wind; souls of historical heroes and ancestors; spirits inhabiting animals and plants; spiritual beings that bring fortune or misfortune; and even fundamental principles underlying the world—anything evoking awe or reverence has historically been called Kami. Reflecting on this breadth, Motoori Norinaga, the Edo-period Kokugaku scholar who established the foundation for interpreting the Kojiki, described Kami as “anything extraordinarily superior (or abnormal) and awe-inspiring.” In essence, he indicated that the scope of Kami is exceedingly broad, or rather infinite.

Commonly, there is a perception that the Japanese traditionally worshipped nature, encapsulated in the “Yaoyorozu no Kami” (八百万神, eight million Kami) belief. They sensed something mysterious within natural objects and phenomena such as mountains, rivers, giant trees and rocks, fire, and lightning, and began revering them. This sentiment formed the core of Shinto, and it is believed that these supernatural entities were collectively named Kami in later times. Consequently, texts like Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, compiled in antiquity, already imply diverse Kami, clearly indicating that Kami are never singular entities. It is important to note here that Kami were not beings who once roamed the earth physically like humans, nor were they simply natural objects or phenomena directly equated with gods. Simply put, Kami were not anthropomorphic deities.

Although comprehensive understanding of the entire concept will be gradually explored, this article will briefly examine “Amaterasu (天照大御神),” designated as the ancestral deity of the emperor. For instance, viewing Amaterasu merely as a sun goddess remains common even in contemporary Japan, yet the Kojiki contains no such explicit description. The perspective equating Amaterasu with the sun goddess frequently cites the myth of “Amano-Iwato-gakure” (天岩戸隠れ, the hiding in the heavenly cave). In the distortion of this myth over time, it became understood that the world plunged into darkness when Amaterasu, the sun goddess, hid, and her reemergence brought “light” back to the earth. However, this interpretation is unrelated to ancient Japanese belief. In other words, a significant shift occurred in religious interpretation during a later period, specifically during the “Shinbutsu-shūgō” (神仏習合, syncretism of Shinto and Buddhism) era.

After the intense political struggles following Buddhism’s arrival, Japan entered the medieval period marked by Buddhism’s widespread integration, causing Kami concepts to evolve significantly through fusion with Buddhism. Between the Heian period (794–late 12th century) and the Kamakura period (late 12th century–1333), the idea of Shinbutsu-shūgō, the syncretism of Kami and Buddha, spread among monks and Shinto priests, and it was here that a pivotal doctrine called Honji Suijaku (本地垂迹説) emerged, asserting that Kami were manifestations of Buddha. This concept was strategically crucial because establishing Buddhism, an imported religion, as absolute in Japan necessitated skillfully merging it with the pre-existing Kami beliefs. Consequently, the Kami concept, cultivated over millennia, was profoundly disrupted.

Honji Suijaku doctrine regarded Japanese Kami merely as temporary manifestations (垂迹, suijaku) of Buddhist deities, interpreting their true nature (本地, honji) as Buddhist. A noteworthy point is that Buddhism was fundamentally an idol-worshipping religion, with statues and temples. Since ancient Japanese beliefs did not originally involve worshipping personified deities nor entities with physical forms, this aspect of Buddhist idol worship profoundly impacted Shinto. In essence, Kami began to become anthropomorphized, adopting more tangible and substantial forms, similar to Buddhist deities.

Under Honji Suijaku, Amaterasu, established as the ancestral Kami of the imperial family in Shinto, was identified as a manifestation of the Esoteric Buddhist deity Dainichi Nyorai (大日如来), who symbolized the sun according to continental interpretations. Previously, Amaterasu was not worshipped explicitly as a sun deity. From this viewpoint, Amaterasu is not a deity that originally existed.

However, complexities escalated further. The arbitrary interpretation applied to Kami through Honji Suijaku by Buddhist factions prompted fierce reactions from some medieval Shintoists. Leading this opposition was the Watarai clan (度会氏), priests of the Outer Shrine (外宮, Gekū) at Ise Jingu. By the late Kamakura period, the Watarai clan reversed Honji Suijaku doctrine and proposed Shinpon Butsujaku (神本仏迹説), which argued, conversely, that "Kami were the original source, and Buddhas were merely their manifestations." This new perspective established "Ise Shintō (Watarai Shintō)," profoundly influencing later developments, even as Shinto itself was still unstable as an organized religion.

Ise Shintō specifically sought to establish a Shinto system superior to Buddhism. Utilizing ancient texts from both Inner Shrine (内宮, Naikū) and Outer Shrine (Gekū), the Watarai clan innovatively linked Amaterasu, the deity of the Inner Shrine, and Toyouke (豊受大神), the deity of the Outer Shrine, to universal cosmic principles to challenge Buddhism. Simultaneously, the Watarai clan also addressed internal struggles for authority within Ise Shrine. Being priests of the Outer Shrine, they positioned Toyouke as a primal deity preceding Amaterasu, equating her with Amenominakanushi (天之御中主神), the creator deity in Japanese mythology, thus attempting to restore the Outer Shrine’s authority. Given that the period favored the Inner Shrine’s prestige, this movement represented the Outer Shrine’s reaction against its diminished status.

Moreover, as the Watarai clan was proficient in Yin-Yang and Five Elements theory, they symbolically classified the Inner Shrine as "fire" and the Outer Shrine as "water." From the viewpoint of the Five Elements theory, they asserted "water overcomes fire (水克火),” emphasizing the absolute superiority of Toyouke (Outer Shrine). This identification of the Inner Shrine with "fire" further merged with the sun worship associated with Dainichi Nyorai, thus contributing to identifying Amaterasu explicitly as the sun deity. In this way, the Watarai clan sought to overturn the dominance of Buddhism and restore the authority of the Outer Shrine by systematizing Shinto doctrines uniquely.

After this significant transformative period in Shinto, during the Muromachi period (1336–1573), Yoshida Kanetomo (吉田兼倶, 1435–1511), a Shinto priest in Kyoto, established Yoshida Shintō. This movement was influenced by the devastating Ōnin War (1467–1477), during which many Shinto texts were destroyed. Yoshida Kanetomo thus attempted to systematize independent Shinto teachings and rituals by personally creating and even fabricating texts. Yoshida Shintō consciously aspired to be completely independent from Buddhism, yet strictly speaking, it was "consciously independent" rather than fully free from Buddhist influence. Nevertheless, Yoshida Kanetomo’s theories significantly influenced anti-Buddhist thought in the Edo period.

Thus, medieval Japan saw two distinct trends emerge: arbitrary and pluralistic interpretations of Kami by Buddhism through Shinbutsu-shūgō, and independent pursuits of original Shinto principles opposing these Buddhist interpretations. These two directions deeply influenced subsequent Shinto history, elevating Kami from natural spirits to philosophical concepts and significantly adding anthropomorphic and substantial characteristics. This complex historical background is critical since it formed the ideological basis for the later rise of Kokugaku (国学, National Learning) in the Edo period and State Shinto in the Meiji era. Having briefly outlined this transformation, we will proceed to examine Amaterasu further based on this historical context.