Inside Japanese Buddhism – Zen Does Not Equal Japan

A Comprehensive Overview of Japanese Buddhist Sects and History

Zen Buddhism has become widely known in the West, creating a strong impression that Zen is synonymous with Japan itself—but is this perception truly accurate? To correct this common misunderstanding, today we will first present a comprehensive overview of Japanese Buddhism as a whole.

Surprisingly, Japan currently has over 150 Buddhist denominations, so numerous that even most Japanese people are not aware of them all. However, these denominations can be broadly categorized based on their historical origins and doctrinal characteristics. Let’s start there.

For instance, from Buddhism’s initial introduction around the 6th century through the Nara period (710-794), “academic Buddhism” emphasizing scriptural studies flourished, giving rise to schools such as Hossō-shū (法相宗), Kegon-shū (華厳宗), and Risshū (律宗). These later became collectively known as the “Six Schools of Nara” (南都六宗, Nanto Rokushū) after the imperial capital moved from Nara to Kyoto during the Heian period (794-1185). Following this, in the early Heian period, Saichō (最澄, 767-822) founded the Tendai sect (天台宗), and Kūkai (空海, 774-835) established Shingon Buddhism (真言宗), laying the foundations for esoteric Buddhism.

The Kamakura period (1185-1333) was particularly notable as a time of Buddhist revival and expansion. This era, characterized by war and disease, saw the rise of movements dedicated to the salvation of suffering common people. Sects advocating rebirth in the Pure Land (極楽往生) through recitation of the nenbutsu emerged, notably Jōdo-shū (浄土宗) and Jōdo Shinshū (浄土真宗, founded by Shinran 親鸞, 1173-1263). Jōdo Shinshū later split into various branches, such as Honganji-ha (本願寺派, Nishi Honganji) and Ōtani-ha (大谷派, Higashi Honganji), becoming increasingly complex historically.

It was also during this period that Zen Buddhism, focusing on liberation from worldly suffering through zazen (seated meditation), was introduced from China and spread by figures like Eisai (栄西, 1141-1215) and Dōgen (道元, 1200-1253), forming Rinzai-shū (臨済宗) and Sōtō-shū (曹洞宗). These Zen schools were particularly embraced by the samurai class that rose to prominence, replacing the aristocracy. Additionally, during this same Kamakura era, Nichiren (日蓮, 1222-1282) founded the Nichiren sect (日蓮宗), based exclusively on the Lotus Sutra (Hokekyō), explicitly serving commoners rather than aristocrats or samurai. Thus, Japanese Buddhism can broadly be viewed through these historical frameworks: the “Nara Buddhism lineage”, the “Heian Buddhism lineage” (primarily Tendai and Shingon), and the “Kamakura Buddhism lineage” (including Jōdo-shū, Jōdo Shinshū, Zen, and Nichiren traditions). Behind these changes lies a profound historical shift in religious belief, moving from aristocracy to warriors, and finally, to ordinary people.

Considering this nearly 1000-year historical background, the complexity of Japanese Buddhism becomes apparent. In reality, although Japanese religious consciousness is markedly different from other countries, according to data from the Agency for Cultural Affairs, as of 2022, approximately 70.75 million Japanese—around 56% of Japan’s total population—identify as Buddhist adherents. Nevertheless, since many Buddhist believers simultaneously participate in Shinto practices, it remains uncertain how many maintain genuinely deep Buddhist faith.

Within these groups, Jōdo Shinshū commands the largest following, accounting for approximately 48% of all Buddhist believers. Specifically, the Honganji-ha and Ōtani-ha sects each have around 7.75 million and 7.28 million followers, respectively, totaling roughly 15 million adherents. Jōdo-shū itself has about 6.02 million believers, making Pure Land Buddhism collectively dominate more than half of Japan’s Buddhist population. Following these, Sōtō-shū (Zen) and Nichiren-shū each constitute approximately 10-12% of the total Buddhist population. Shingon-shū, Rinzai-shū (another Zen), and Tendai-shū each have smaller followings, constituting around 5%, 5%, and 2%, respectively.

These numbers clearly illustrate that Zen Buddhism is not the largest branch within Japanese Buddhism. However, Zen holds a unique prominence. For example, among Japan’s three major Zen schools—Sōtō, Rinzai, and Ōbaku-shū (黄檗宗)—the largest, Sōtō, has about 3.51 million followers but operates approximately 14,600 temples, the highest number among all Buddhist sects nationwide, out of an estimated 70,000 temples in Japan. Rinzai-shū, despite subdividing into several branches such as Myōshinji-ha (妙心寺派), collectively amounts to only several hundred thousand followers, while Ōbaku-shū is even smaller. Thus, by follower count alone, Zen Buddhism represents a minority compared to Pure Land or Nichiren sects.

Nevertheless, Zen temples are widespread even in rural regions, deeply integrated into local communities through the “danka system” (檀家), where residents entrust funeral rites and ancestral worship to these temples. Especially Sōtō temples hold many adherents in rural areas of eastern Japan, while Rinzai temples maintain significant historical sites in Kyoto, Kamakura, and elsewhere. This embeddedness in community life partly explains Zen Buddhism’s deep influence on Japanese culture and society.

This overview, based on practical aspects like denominations, adherent counts, and temple distributions, has intentionally excluded the cultural, spiritual, and philosophical influences Zen has on Japan, which remain significant and warrant future exploration. However, even this summary makes clear that the Western perception equating Zen exclusively with Japanese Buddhism does not reflect reality, instead representing a misunderstanding disconnected from the complexities of Buddhism in Japan. Keeping this in mind, future articles will further explore the cultural and philosophical dimensions to uncover the deeper relationship between Zen and the Japanese people.